Post-Traumatic Growth in Bereaved Individuals: Impact of Social Support and Socio-Demographic Variables
Keywords:
Social support, Education, Nature of death, Post-traumatic growth, Bereavement
Abstract
Background. Social support and socio-demographic characteristics have been explored in
past studies which have examined post-traumatic growth. The main aim of this study was to
examine whether social support and socio-demographic variables (age of deceased, education
level of participants, and nature of death) are related to post-traumatic growth. Exploring mean
group differences on social support and post-traumatic growth were also focused.
Method. Data were collected from 260 bereaved parents and spouses in the age range of 20
–90 years (M = 45.20, SD = 14.57). Social Support Questionnaire-Short Form (Sarason et al.,
1987) and Post-traumatic Growth Inventory-Short Form (Cann et al., 2010) were used to asses
social support and post traumatic growth.
Results. Results indicated positive and weak relationship of social support with post-traumatic
growth. Mean group differences on socio-demographic characteristics were found to be
statistically non-significant and not meaningful. Age of deceased and education level of
participants significantly predicted post-traumatic growth; however nature of death and social
support did not significantly predict post-traumatic growth.
Conclusion. The findings draw attention to enhancing the quality of social support and
considering the socio-demographic characteristics in devising support plans for extremely
distressed individuals. Limitations of the study and directions for future researches are
discussed.
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References
References
Aliche, J. C., Ifeagwazi, C. K., Onyishi, I. E., & Mefoh, P. C. (2019). Presence of meaning in life mediates the relations between social support, posttraumatic growth, and resilience in young adult survivors of a terror attack. Journal of Loss and Trauma. doi: 10.1080/15325024.2019.1624416
Aziz, S. (2012). Psychiatric morbidity, posttraumatic growth, work and social adjustment among earthquake survivors extricated from under the rubble. (Unpublished master’s thesis). National Institute of Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan.
Barakat, L. P., Aldelfer, M. A., & Kazak, A. E. (2006). Posttraumatic growth in adolescent survivors of cancer and their mothers and fathers. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 31(4):413-9.
Baral, I. A., & Bhagawati, K. C. (2019). Posttraumatic stress disorder and coping strategies among adult survivors of earthquake, Nepal. BMC Psychiatry. 19, 118. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-019-2090-y.
Barrett-Bernstein, M., Wurz, A., & Brunet, J. (2019). Posttraumatic growth and its correlates among survivors of adolescent and young adult cancer: A brief report. Journal of Psychosocial Oncology. doi: 10.1080/07347332.2019.1664702
Bozo, O., Gundogdu, E., & Buyukasik-Colak, C. (2009). The moderating role of different sources of perceived social support on the dispositional optimism-- posttraumatic growth relationship in postoperative breast cancer patients. Journal of Health Psychology, 14(7), 1009-1020. doi: 10.1177/1359105309342 29514/7/1009
Cadell, S., Rehgehr, C., & Harmsworth, D. (2003). Factors contributing to posttraumatic growth: A proposed structural equation model. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 73(3), 279-287.
Cann, A., Calhoun, L. G., Tedeschi, R. G., Taku, K., Vishnevsky, T., Triplett, K. N., & Danhauer, S. C. (2010). A short form of the Posttraumatic growth inventory. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 23(2), 127-137.
Chen, H. M., Chen, V. C. H., Hsiao, H. P., Weng, Y. P., Hsu, Y. T., Weng, J. C., … Chen, Y. L. (2019). Correlations and correlates of post-traumatic growth and post-traumatic stress symptoms in patients with breast cancer. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 15, 3051–3060.
Colville, G., & Cream, P. (2009). Post-traumatic growth in parents after a child's admission to intensive care: maybe Nietzsche was right? Intensive Care Medicine, 35(5), 919-23. doi: 10.1007/s00134-009-1444-1
Drapeau, C. W., Lockman, J. D., Moore, M. M., & Cerel, J. (2019). Predictors of posttraumatic growth in adults bereaved by suicide. Crisis, 40(3), 196–202. https://doi:org/10.1027/0227-5910/a000556
Hall, B. J., Saltzman, L. Y., Canetti, D. & Hobfoll. S. E. (2015) A longitudinal investigation of the relationship between posttraumatic stress symptoms and posttraumatic growth in a cohort of Israeli Jews and Palestinians during ongoing violence. PLoS ONE 10(4): e0124782. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0124782.
Hirooka, K., Fukahori, H., Akita, Y., & Ozawa, M. (2016). Posttraumatic growth among Japanese parentally bereaved adolescents: A web-based survey. American Journal of Hospice & Palliative Medicine, 1(7), doi: 10.1177/1049909115627776
Jaarsma, T. A., Pool, G., Sanderman, R., & Ranchor, A. V. (2006). Psychometric properties of the Dutch version of the posttraumatic growth inventory among cancer patients. Psychooncology 15(10), 911-920. doi: 10.1002/pon.1026
Joseph, S., & Linely, P. A. (2005). Positive Adjustment to Threatening Events: An Organismic Valuing Theory of Growth through Adversity. Review of General Psychology, 9, 262-280. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.9.3.262
Kılıc, C., Magruder, K. M., & Koryurek, M. M. (2016). Does trauma type relate to posttraumatic growth after war? A pilot study of young Iraqi war survivors living in Turkey. Transcultural psychiatry, 53(1), 110-123.
Kolokotroni, P. Anagnostopoulos, F., & Tsikkinis, A. (2014). Psychosocial factors related to posttraumatic growth in breast cancer survivors: A Review. Women & Health, 54:6, 569-592, doi: 10.1080/03630242.2014.899543
Kroo, A., & Nagy, H. (2011). Posttraumatic growth among traumatized Somali refugees in Hungary. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 16(5), 440-458.
Lichtenthal, W. G., Burke, L. A., & Neimeyer, R. A. (2011). .Religious Coping and Meaning-making following the Loss of a Loved One. New York.
Mesidor, J. K., & Sly, K. F. (2019). Religious coping, general coping strategies, perceived social support, PTSD symptoms, resilience, and posttraumatic growth among survivors of the 2010 earthquake in Haiti. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 22(2), 130-143, doi: 10.1080/13674676.2019.1580254
Michael, C., & Cooper, M. (2013). Post-traumatic growth following bereavement: A systematic review of the literature. Counselling Psychology Review, 28(4).
Munsoor, H. S. (2019). God in times of adversity: A mixed-methods study investigating the relationship between religious coping and identification on the trauma appraisals and world assumptions of Muslim refugees/asylum seekers. (Doctoral Thesis). University of Wolverhampton
Naik, A. R, & Khan, S. H. (2019). Posttraumatic growth: An overview. International Journal of Advance and Innovative Research, 6(4).
Rahmani, A., Mohammadian, R., Ferguson, C., Golizadeh, L., Zirak, M., & Chavoshi, H. (2012). Posttraumatic growth in Iranian cancer patients. Indian Journal of Cancer, 49(3). doi: 10.4103/0019-509X.104489
Rajandram, R. K., Jenewein, J., McGrath, C. P. J., & Zwahlen, R. A. (2010). Posttraumatic growth: A novel concept in oral cavity cancer care?. Oral Oncology, 46, 791–794. doi:10.1016/j.oraloncology.2010.08.010
Rzeszutek, M. (2017). Social support and posttraumatic growth in a longitudinal study of people living with HIV: The mediating role of positive affect. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 8(1), 1412225. doi: 10.1080/20008198.2017.1412225
Sarason, I. G., Sarason, B. R., Shearin, E. N., & Pierce, G.R. (1987). A brief measure of social support: Practical and theoretical implications. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 4(4), 497-510.
Schroevers, M. J. Helgeson, V.S., Sanderman, R., & Ranchor, A. V. (2010). Type of social support matters for prediction of posttraumatic growth among cancer survivors. Psychooncology, 19(1), 46-53. doi: 10.1002/pon.1501
Senol-Durak, E., & Durak, M. (2018). Posttraumatic growth among Turkish older adults with diabetes. Journal of Aging and Long-term Care, 1(2), 55-63
doi: 10.5505/jaltc.2018.36844
Sörensen, J., Rzeszutek, M., & Gasik, R. (2019). Social support and post-traumatic growth among a sample of arthritis patients: Analysis in light of conservation of resources theory. Current Psychology. https://doi:org/10.1007/s12144-019-0131-9
Spahni, S., Morselli, D., Perrig-Chiello, P., & Bennett, K. M. (2015). Patterns of psychological adaptation to spousal bereavement in old age. Gerontology, 61, 456–468. doi: 10.1159/000371444
Starcevic, A. (2019). Introductory Chapter: Psychological Trauma. In book: Psychological Trauma. http://dx.doi:org/10.5772/intechopen.89519
Suhail, K., Jamil, N., Oyebode, J. R., & Ajmal, M. A. (2011). Continuing Bonds in Bereaved Pakistani Muslims: Effects of Culture and Religion. Death Studies 35(1)22-41. doi; 10.1080/07481181003765592
Su, Y.-J., Chow, C.-C., Yen, C.-I., & Chuang, S.-S. (2019). Posttraumatic growth among burn survivors 2 years after the 2015 Formosa Fun Coast Water Park explosion in Taiwan. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi:org/10.1037/tra0000458
Sveen, J., Pohlkampl, L., Kreicbergs, U., & Maarten, C., & Eisma, M. C. (2019). Rumination in bereaved parents: Psychometric evaluation of the Swedish version of the Utrecht Grief Rumination Scale (UGRS). PLoS ONE, 14(3). doi: org/10.1371/journal
Tedeschi, R.G., & Calhoun, L.G. (1996). The post-traumatic growth inventory: Measuring the positive legacy of trauma. Journal of post-traumatic stress, 9(3), 455–471.
Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G., (2004). Posttraumatic growth: Conceptual foundations and empirical evidence. Psychological Inquiry, 15(1), 1-18.
Triplett, K. N., Tedeschi, R. G., Cann, A., Calhoun, L. G., & Reeve, C. L. (2012). Posttraumatic growth, meaning in life, and life satisfaction in response to trauma. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 4(4), 400–410. https://doi:org/10.1037/a0024204
Vanhooren, S., Leijssen, M., & Dezutter, J. (2018) Coping strategies and posttraumatic growth in Prison. The Prison Journal, 1(20). doi: 10.1177/ 0032885517753151
Walter M., Bates G. (2012). “Posttraumatic growth and recovery from post-traumatic stress disorder,” in Essential Notes in Psychiatry ed. Olisah V. (Manhattan, NY: InTech; ) 143–186.
Waugh, A., Kiemle, G., & Slade, P. (2018). Understanding mothers’ experiences of positive changes after neonatal death. European Journal of Psychotraumatology. 9(1).doi:10.1080/20008198.2018.1528124
Wills, T. A., & Fegan, M. F. (2001). Social networks and social support. In. A. Baum, T. A. Revenson, & J. E. Singer (Eds.), Handbook of Health Psychology (pp. 209-234). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Zhoua, Y., Lianga, Y., Tong, H., & Liua, Z. (2019). Patterns of posttraumatic stress disorder and posttraumatic growth among women after an earthquake: A latent profile analysis. Asian Journal of Psychiatry. https://doi:org/10.1016/j.ajp.2019.10.014
Aliche, J. C., Ifeagwazi, C. K., Onyishi, I. E., & Mefoh, P. C. (2019). Presence of meaning in life mediates the relations between social support, posttraumatic growth, and resilience in young adult survivors of a terror attack. Journal of Loss and Trauma. doi: 10.1080/15325024.2019.1624416
Aziz, S. (2012). Psychiatric morbidity, posttraumatic growth, work and social adjustment among earthquake survivors extricated from under the rubble. (Unpublished master’s thesis). National Institute of Psychology, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan.
Barakat, L. P., Aldelfer, M. A., & Kazak, A. E. (2006). Posttraumatic growth in adolescent survivors of cancer and their mothers and fathers. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 31(4):413-9.
Baral, I. A., & Bhagawati, K. C. (2019). Posttraumatic stress disorder and coping strategies among adult survivors of earthquake, Nepal. BMC Psychiatry. 19, 118. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-019-2090-y.
Barrett-Bernstein, M., Wurz, A., & Brunet, J. (2019). Posttraumatic growth and its correlates among survivors of adolescent and young adult cancer: A brief report. Journal of Psychosocial Oncology. doi: 10.1080/07347332.2019.1664702
Bozo, O., Gundogdu, E., & Buyukasik-Colak, C. (2009). The moderating role of different sources of perceived social support on the dispositional optimism-- posttraumatic growth relationship in postoperative breast cancer patients. Journal of Health Psychology, 14(7), 1009-1020. doi: 10.1177/1359105309342 29514/7/1009
Cadell, S., Rehgehr, C., & Harmsworth, D. (2003). Factors contributing to posttraumatic growth: A proposed structural equation model. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 73(3), 279-287.
Cann, A., Calhoun, L. G., Tedeschi, R. G., Taku, K., Vishnevsky, T., Triplett, K. N., & Danhauer, S. C. (2010). A short form of the Posttraumatic growth inventory. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 23(2), 127-137.
Chen, H. M., Chen, V. C. H., Hsiao, H. P., Weng, Y. P., Hsu, Y. T., Weng, J. C., … Chen, Y. L. (2019). Correlations and correlates of post-traumatic growth and post-traumatic stress symptoms in patients with breast cancer. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 15, 3051–3060.
Colville, G., & Cream, P. (2009). Post-traumatic growth in parents after a child's admission to intensive care: maybe Nietzsche was right? Intensive Care Medicine, 35(5), 919-23. doi: 10.1007/s00134-009-1444-1
Drapeau, C. W., Lockman, J. D., Moore, M. M., & Cerel, J. (2019). Predictors of posttraumatic growth in adults bereaved by suicide. Crisis, 40(3), 196–202. https://doi:org/10.1027/0227-5910/a000556
Hall, B. J., Saltzman, L. Y., Canetti, D. & Hobfoll. S. E. (2015) A longitudinal investigation of the relationship between posttraumatic stress symptoms and posttraumatic growth in a cohort of Israeli Jews and Palestinians during ongoing violence. PLoS ONE 10(4): e0124782. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0124782.
Hirooka, K., Fukahori, H., Akita, Y., & Ozawa, M. (2016). Posttraumatic growth among Japanese parentally bereaved adolescents: A web-based survey. American Journal of Hospice & Palliative Medicine, 1(7), doi: 10.1177/1049909115627776
Jaarsma, T. A., Pool, G., Sanderman, R., & Ranchor, A. V. (2006). Psychometric properties of the Dutch version of the posttraumatic growth inventory among cancer patients. Psychooncology 15(10), 911-920. doi: 10.1002/pon.1026
Joseph, S., & Linely, P. A. (2005). Positive Adjustment to Threatening Events: An Organismic Valuing Theory of Growth through Adversity. Review of General Psychology, 9, 262-280. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.9.3.262
Kılıc, C., Magruder, K. M., & Koryurek, M. M. (2016). Does trauma type relate to posttraumatic growth after war? A pilot study of young Iraqi war survivors living in Turkey. Transcultural psychiatry, 53(1), 110-123.
Kolokotroni, P. Anagnostopoulos, F., & Tsikkinis, A. (2014). Psychosocial factors related to posttraumatic growth in breast cancer survivors: A Review. Women & Health, 54:6, 569-592, doi: 10.1080/03630242.2014.899543
Kroo, A., & Nagy, H. (2011). Posttraumatic growth among traumatized Somali refugees in Hungary. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 16(5), 440-458.
Lichtenthal, W. G., Burke, L. A., & Neimeyer, R. A. (2011). .Religious Coping and Meaning-making following the Loss of a Loved One. New York.
Mesidor, J. K., & Sly, K. F. (2019). Religious coping, general coping strategies, perceived social support, PTSD symptoms, resilience, and posttraumatic growth among survivors of the 2010 earthquake in Haiti. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 22(2), 130-143, doi: 10.1080/13674676.2019.1580254
Michael, C., & Cooper, M. (2013). Post-traumatic growth following bereavement: A systematic review of the literature. Counselling Psychology Review, 28(4).
Munsoor, H. S. (2019). God in times of adversity: A mixed-methods study investigating the relationship between religious coping and identification on the trauma appraisals and world assumptions of Muslim refugees/asylum seekers. (Doctoral Thesis). University of Wolverhampton
Naik, A. R, & Khan, S. H. (2019). Posttraumatic growth: An overview. International Journal of Advance and Innovative Research, 6(4).
Rahmani, A., Mohammadian, R., Ferguson, C., Golizadeh, L., Zirak, M., & Chavoshi, H. (2012). Posttraumatic growth in Iranian cancer patients. Indian Journal of Cancer, 49(3). doi: 10.4103/0019-509X.104489
Rajandram, R. K., Jenewein, J., McGrath, C. P. J., & Zwahlen, R. A. (2010). Posttraumatic growth: A novel concept in oral cavity cancer care?. Oral Oncology, 46, 791–794. doi:10.1016/j.oraloncology.2010.08.010
Rzeszutek, M. (2017). Social support and posttraumatic growth in a longitudinal study of people living with HIV: The mediating role of positive affect. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 8(1), 1412225. doi: 10.1080/20008198.2017.1412225
Sarason, I. G., Sarason, B. R., Shearin, E. N., & Pierce, G.R. (1987). A brief measure of social support: Practical and theoretical implications. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 4(4), 497-510.
Schroevers, M. J. Helgeson, V.S., Sanderman, R., & Ranchor, A. V. (2010). Type of social support matters for prediction of posttraumatic growth among cancer survivors. Psychooncology, 19(1), 46-53. doi: 10.1002/pon.1501
Senol-Durak, E., & Durak, M. (2018). Posttraumatic growth among Turkish older adults with diabetes. Journal of Aging and Long-term Care, 1(2), 55-63
doi: 10.5505/jaltc.2018.36844
Sörensen, J., Rzeszutek, M., & Gasik, R. (2019). Social support and post-traumatic growth among a sample of arthritis patients: Analysis in light of conservation of resources theory. Current Psychology. https://doi:org/10.1007/s12144-019-0131-9
Spahni, S., Morselli, D., Perrig-Chiello, P., & Bennett, K. M. (2015). Patterns of psychological adaptation to spousal bereavement in old age. Gerontology, 61, 456–468. doi: 10.1159/000371444
Starcevic, A. (2019). Introductory Chapter: Psychological Trauma. In book: Psychological Trauma. http://dx.doi:org/10.5772/intechopen.89519
Suhail, K., Jamil, N., Oyebode, J. R., & Ajmal, M. A. (2011). Continuing Bonds in Bereaved Pakistani Muslims: Effects of Culture and Religion. Death Studies 35(1)22-41. doi; 10.1080/07481181003765592
Su, Y.-J., Chow, C.-C., Yen, C.-I., & Chuang, S.-S. (2019). Posttraumatic growth among burn survivors 2 years after the 2015 Formosa Fun Coast Water Park explosion in Taiwan. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi:org/10.1037/tra0000458
Sveen, J., Pohlkampl, L., Kreicbergs, U., & Maarten, C., & Eisma, M. C. (2019). Rumination in bereaved parents: Psychometric evaluation of the Swedish version of the Utrecht Grief Rumination Scale (UGRS). PLoS ONE, 14(3). doi: org/10.1371/journal
Tedeschi, R.G., & Calhoun, L.G. (1996). The post-traumatic growth inventory: Measuring the positive legacy of trauma. Journal of post-traumatic stress, 9(3), 455–471.
Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G., (2004). Posttraumatic growth: Conceptual foundations and empirical evidence. Psychological Inquiry, 15(1), 1-18.
Triplett, K. N., Tedeschi, R. G., Cann, A., Calhoun, L. G., & Reeve, C. L. (2012). Posttraumatic growth, meaning in life, and life satisfaction in response to trauma. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 4(4), 400–410. https://doi:org/10.1037/a0024204
Vanhooren, S., Leijssen, M., & Dezutter, J. (2018) Coping strategies and posttraumatic growth in Prison. The Prison Journal, 1(20). doi: 10.1177/ 0032885517753151
Walter M., Bates G. (2012). “Posttraumatic growth and recovery from post-traumatic stress disorder,” in Essential Notes in Psychiatry ed. Olisah V. (Manhattan, NY: InTech; ) 143–186.
Waugh, A., Kiemle, G., & Slade, P. (2018). Understanding mothers’ experiences of positive changes after neonatal death. European Journal of Psychotraumatology. 9(1).doi:10.1080/20008198.2018.1528124
Wills, T. A., & Fegan, M. F. (2001). Social networks and social support. In. A. Baum, T. A. Revenson, & J. E. Singer (Eds.), Handbook of Health Psychology (pp. 209-234). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Zhoua, Y., Lianga, Y., Tong, H., & Liua, Z. (2019). Patterns of posttraumatic stress disorder and posttraumatic growth among women after an earthquake: A latent profile analysis. Asian Journal of Psychiatry. https://doi:org/10.1016/j.ajp.2019.10.014
Published
2021-03-09
Section
Articles
